Low-cost portable sensor for rapid and sensitive detection of Pb²⁺ ions using capacitance sensing integrated with...

Lead ion (Pb²⁺) pollution is a critical global issue due to its ability to accumulate in the human body, resulting in severe health problems. Despite extensive research efforts devoted to the detection of Pb²⁺ contamination, practical, rapid, and field-deployable sensors for Pb²⁺ is yet to be developed to effectively safeguard the environment and public health. Herein, a label-free affinity-based sensing device is developed based on printed circuit board (PCB) for low-cost, easy-to-use, and real-time on-site detection of Pb²⁺ ions. The sensors are prepared by forming a self-assembled monolayer of glutathione (GSH) on the surface of gold-plated PCB electrodes, which serves as a molecular probe to recognize Pb²⁺. Rapid and sensitive detection is achieved by using capacitance sensing integrated with microfluidic enrichment. The sensor's interfacial capacitance is used to indicate specific binding, while the capacitance reading process simultaneously induces alternating current electrothermal (ACET) acceleration of analyte's travel towards the probes. Thus, the enrichment and detection are integrated into a single step, making pre-concentration unnecessary and shortening the assay time to 30 s. This Pb²⁺ sensor has demonstrated one of the lowest limits of detection reported so far (1.85 fM) with a linear range of 0.01-10 pM. To evaluate the sensor's specificity, non-target metal ions are tested, all showing negligible responses. Testing of tap water sample also yields reasonable results, validating the sensor's robustness. The above-mentioned features, together with a commercial portable readout, make this sensor well-suited for point-of-use Pb²⁺ detection at low cost.