A general flame aerosol route to kinetically stabilized metal-organic frameworks

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are highly attractive porous materials with applications spanning the fields of chemistry, physics, biology, and engineering. Their exceptional porosity and structural flexibility have led to widespread use in catalysis, separation, biomedicine, and electrochemistry. Currently, most MOFs are synthesized under equilibrium liquid-phase reaction conditions. Here we show a general and versatile non-equilibrium flame aerosol synthesis of MOFs, in which rapid kinetics of MOF formation yields two distinct classes of MOFs, nano-crystalline MOFs and amorphous MOFs. A key advantage of this far-from-equilibrium synthesis is integration of different metal cations within a single MOF phase, even when this is thermodynamically unfavorable. This can, for example, produce single-atom catalysts and bimetallic MOFs of arbitrary metal pairs. Moreover, we demonstrate that dopant metals (e.g., Pt, Pd) can be exsolved from the MOF framework by reduction, forming nanoclusters anchored on the MOF. A prototypical example of such a material exhibited outstanding performance as a CO oxidation catalyst. This general synthesis route opens new opportunities in MOF design and applications across diverse fields and is inherently scalable for continuous production at industrial scales.