Closed-Loop Systems and Real-Time Neurofeedback in Mindfulness Meditation Research

Mindfulness meditation has numerous purported benefits for psychological well-being; however, problems such as adherence to mindfulness tasks, quality of mindfulness sessions, or dosage of mindfulness interventions may hinder individuals from accessing the purported benefits of mindfulness. Methodologies including closed-loop systems and real-time neurofeedback may provide tools to help bolster success in mindfulness task performance, titrate the exposure to mindfulness interventions, or improve engagement with mindfulness sessions. In this review, we explore the use of closed-loop systems and real-time neurofeedback to influence, augment, or promote mindfulness interventions. Various closed-loop neurofeedback signals from functional magnetic resonance imaging and electroencephalography have been used to provide subjective correlates of mindfulness states including functional magnetic resonance imaging region-of-interest-based signals (e.g., posterior cingulate cortex), functional magnetic resonance imaging network-based signals (e.g., default mode network, central executive network, salience network), and electroencephalography spectral-based signals (e.g., alpha, theta, and gamma bands). Past research has focused on how successful interventions have aligned with the subjective mindfulness meditation experience. Future research may pivot toward using appropriate control conditions (e.g., mindfulness only or sham neurofeedback) to quantify the effects of closed-loop systems and neurofeedback-guided mindfulness meditation in improving cognition and well-being.