Subthalamic stimulation causally modulates human voluntary decision-making to stay or go

The voluntary nature of decision-making is fundamental to human behavior. The subthalamic nucleus is important in reactive decision-making, but its role in voluntary decision-making remains unclear. We recorded from deep brain stimulation subthalamic electrodes time-locked with acute stimulation using a Go/Nogo task to assess voluntary action and inaction. Beta oscillations during voluntary decision-making were temporally dissociated from motor function. Parkinson's patients showed an inaction bias with high beta and intermediate physiological states. Stimulation reversed the inaction bias highlighting its causal nature, and shifting physiology closer to reactive choices. Depression was associated with higher alpha during Voluntary-Nogo characterized by inaction or inertial status quo maintenance whereas apathy had higher beta-gamma during voluntary action or impaired effortful initiation of action. Our findings suggest the human subthalamic nucleus causally contributes to voluntary decision-making, possibly through threshold gating or toggling mechanisms, with stimulation shifting towards voluntary action and suggest biomarkers as potential clinical predictors.