Artificial intelligence tools trained on human-labeled data reflect human biases: a case study in a large clinical...

Humans have been shown to have biases when reading medical images, raising questions about whether humans are uniform in their disease gradings. Artificial intelligence (AI) tools trained on human-labeled data may have inherent human non-uniformity. In this study, we used a radiographic knee osteoarthritis external validation dataset of 50 patients and a six-year retrospective consecutive clinical cohort of 8,273 patients. An FDA-approved and CE-marked AI tool was tested for potential non-uniformity in Kellgren-Lawrence grades between the right and left sides of the images. We flipped the images horizontally so that a left knee looked like a right knee and vice versa. According to human review, the AI tool showed non-uniformity with 20-22% disagreements on the external validation dataset and 13.6% on the cohort. However, we found no evidence of a significant difference in the accuracy compared to senior radiologists on the external validation dataset, or age bias or sex bias on the cohort. AI non-uniformity can boost the evaluated performance against humans, but image areas with inferior performance should be investigated.