Advances in green carbon-based biosorbents: From conventional to miniaturized sample preparation strategies

Developing novel sorbent phases has advanced solid-based sample preparation techniques, improving analytical performance in complex matrices. Carbon-based sorbents, known for their high surface area, thermal and mechanical stability, and modifiability due to abundant organic functional groups, have emerged as exceptional materials in this field. Due to their versatile characteristics, carbon-based materials have been extensively investigated as promising materials for anchoring and functionalization with biopolymers, resulting in innovative hybrid materials, so-called carbon-based biosorbents. These biosorbents offer numerous advantages, including enhanced physicochemical properties and biodegradability, which help reduce the environmental impact of their synthesis, particularly when compared to conventional synthetic sorbent production methods that lack adherence to environmentally sustainable protocols. Among the various biopolymers used for modification, chitosan, starch, cyclodextrin, cellulose, and agarose have been identified as promising candidates for integration with carbon-based materials. In light of the ongoing advancements in developing novel carbon-based biosorbent materials, this review aims to highlight their synthesis using these biopolymers and examine their application in conventional and miniaturized sample preparation techniques across diverse matrices.