Proton-exchange induced reactivity in layered oxides for lithium-ion batteries

LiNi_xCo_yMn_1-x-yO₂ (0 < x, y < 1, NCM) is the dominant positive material for the state-of-the-art lithium-ion batteries. However, the sensitivity of NCM materials to moisture makes their manufacturing, storage, transportation, electrode processing and recycling complicated. Although it is recognized that protons play a critical role in their structure stability and performance, proton exchange with Li⁺ in NCM materials has not been well understood. Here, we employ advanced characterizations and computational studies to elucidate how protons intercalate into the layered structure of NCM, leading to the leaching of Li⁺ and the formation of protonated NCM. It is found that protonation facilitates cation rearrangement and formation of impurity phases in NCM, significantly deteriorating structural stability. The adverse effects induced by protons become increasingly pronounced with a higher Ni content in NCM. Through a comprehensive investigation into the thermodynamics and kinetics of protonation, we discover that Li deficiencies in NCM materials can be resolved via solution process in the presence of Li⁺ ions and controlled proton concentration. The underlying mechanism of relithiation is further explored through materials characterizations and kinetics modeling. This work provides crucial insights into controlling structural and compositional defects of Li-ion battery positive material in complicated processing environment.