Metacognition in nonhuman primates: a review of current knowledge

Metacognition, the ability to monitor and control one's own cognitive processes, has long been considered a hallmark of human cognition. However, two decades of research have provided compelling evidence of metacognitive-like abilities in some nonhuman primates. This review synthesizes current knowledge on the subject, highlighting key experimental paradigms and empirical findings, with an emphasis on the latest studies. Thanks to advances in methods and efforts to counter alternative explanations, there is now a consensus that great apes and some macaque species can monitor and control some of their cognitive processes. Despite numerous investigations, however, whether capuchin monkeys are metacognitive remains unclear. Critical gaps persist in our understanding of metacognition across species. We discuss the importance of expanding research to include a wider range of primate species and the potential role of ecological factors in shaping metacognitive capacities. In addition, we consider some promising avenues for future research, including neurophysiological approaches, studies of metacognitive errors, and field experiments.