Membrane-anchored mobile tethers modulate condensate wetting, localization, and migration

Biomolecular condensates frequently rely on membrane interactions for recruitment, localization, and biochemical substrates. Many of these interactions are mediated by membrane-anchored molecules such as proteins or specific lipids, which we refer to as "mobile tethers" since they can typically diffuse within the membrane while still interacting with the condensate. The presence of mobile tethers creates a surface with dynamic and spatially inhomogeneous wetting properties that are typically overlooked by traditional wetting theories. Here, we propose a general theoretical framework to study how mobile tethers impact both equilibrium and dynamic properties of condensate wetting. We show that a favorable tether-condensate interaction leads to tether enrichment at the condensate-membrane interface, which modifies the equilibrium surface tension and contact angle. Increasing tether abundance on the membrane can drive transitions between wetting regimes, with only a modest tether density and binding energy required for biologically relevant scenarios. Furthermore, tethers modulate how condensates react to complex membrane geometries. By helping condensates coat membranes, mobile tethers can facilitate condensate localization to junctions of membrane structures, such as the reticulated membranes inside the algal pyrenoid. Both tether abundance and mobility affect how droplets interact with complex membrane geometries, such as droplet migration along membrane tubules of varying radii. These results provide a framework to study the implications of tether-mediated condensate-membrane interactions for cellular organization and function.