Strategic challenges in the global control of high pathogenicity avian influenza

H5Nx A/Goose/Guangdong/1/96 Eurasian lineage high pathogenicity avian influenza (HPAI) viruses have been the main HPAI strains detected globally since 2005. These have spread around the world, causing a panzootic that has spanned six continents, with continual threat to not only wild and captive birds and poultry, but also wild, captive and domestic mammals and humans. The viruses' ecology and epidemiology - especially the 2.3.4.4b clade - have changed, with over 489 species of birds infected and spreading the virus over migratory routes. This results in the death of many birds, including endangered species, and serves as a source of transmission to poultry and mammals. Improved surveillance and sharing of HPAI virus sequences, metadata and viruses across the veterinary, public health, wildlife and environment sectors are needed to elucidate the population dynamics of the infections, which is crucial to addressing this complex One Health issue. The development of appropriate mitigation strategies or changes in husbandry, production and selling practices can reduce the risk of viruses being introduced into farms, as well as their amplification and viral evolution, and any spill-back to wild birds. Approaches to prevention and control of HPAI in countries where these 2.3.4.4b viruses remain entrenched in poultry, or places at risk of virus introduction via wild bird populations, involve measures to reduce the effects of the disease in poultry (including enhanced farm bio-security, vaccination, zoning and compartmentalisation). Their uptake reflects the difficulties encountered in relying solely on biosecurity for disease prevention and on stamping out alone for virus control and elimination. The World Organisation for Animal Health's Terrestrial Animal Health Code allows use of vaccination of poultry under specific conditions and without negatively impacting HPAI-free status if appropriate surveillance is conducted, thus supporting safe trade in poultry and poultry products. Nevertheless, concerns regarding loss of valuable export markets still interfere with greater utilisation of vaccination.