The microbiome orchestrates contaminant low-dose phytostimulation

Our understanding of the physiological mechanisms of the plant hormetic response to countless environmental contaminants is rapidly advancing. However, the microbiome is a critical determinant of plant responses to stressors, thus possibly influencing hormetic responses. Here, we review the otherwise neglected role of microbes in shaping plant stimulation by subtoxic concentrations of contaminants and vice versa. Numerous contaminants at subtoxic levels enhance microorganisms and proliferate symbionts, such as mycorrhizae and other plant beneficial microbes, leading to both direct and indirect improvements in plant physiological performance. Microbial symbiosis facilitates nutrient uptake by plants, indicating an important contribution of symbionts to phytostimulation under subtoxic contamination. We also discuss the mechanisms and implications of the stimulation of plant-microbe systems by subtoxic contaminants.