White-tailed deer limit their spatio-temporal overlap with hikers in a protected area

The pressure on ecosystems resulting from outdoor recreational activities is increasing globally. Protected areas offer to large mammals refugia free of hunting with greater access to food resources, but the presence of humans for recreation in these areas may induce changes in behaviour, activity pattern, and habitat use. We used camera traps to model the spatial distribution and temporal activity of the white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in a nature reserve located close to Montreal, the second largest metropole in Canada. We showed that deer limit their overlap with the public both across space and over time. White-tailed deer exhibited their highest activity level early in the morning, prior to the reserve's opening hours, indicating temporal avoidance of the public. Deer were also detected at a higher rate when further away from the hiking trail, although in less suitable habitat, indicating spatial avoidance. Human recreational activities in nature reserves open to the public may thus have an indirect effect on ecosystems, by altering the habitat use and behaviour of wildlife.