Appetite-related Gut Hormone Responses to Feeding Across the Life Course

Appetite-related hormones are secreted from the gut, signaling the presence of nutrients. Such signaling allows for cross-talk between the gut and the appetite-control regions of the brain, influencing appetite and food intake. As nutritional requirements change throughout the life course, it is perhaps unsurprising that appetite and eating behavior are not constant. Changes in appetite-related gut hormones may underpin these alterations in appetite and eating. In this article, we review evidence of how the release of appetite-related gut hormones changes throughout the life course and how this impacts appetite and eating behaviour. We focus on hormones for which there is the strongest evidence of impact on appetite, food intake, and body weight: the anorexigenic glucagon like peptide-1, peptide tyrosine tyrosine, and cholecystokinin, and the orexigenic ghrelin. We consider hormone concentrations, particularly in response to feeding, from the very early days of life, through childhood and adolescence, where responses may reflect energy requirements to support growth and development. We discuss the period of adulthood and midlife, with a particular focus on sex differences and the effect of menstruation, pregnancy, and menopause, as well as the potential influence of appetite-related gut hormones on body composition and weight status. We then discuss recent advancements in our understanding of how unfavorable changes in appetite-related gut hormone responses to feeding in later life may contribute to undernutrition and a detrimental aging trajectory. Finally, we briefly highlight priorities for future research.