Semi-Supervised Learning Allows for Improved Segmentation With Reduced Annotations of Brain Metastases Using...

Deep learning-based segmentation of brain metastases relies on large amounts of fully annotated data by domain experts. Semi-supervised learning offers potential efficient methods to improve model performance without excessive annotation burden.

This work tests the viability of semi-supervision for brain metastases segmentation.

Retrospective.

There were 156, 65, 324, and 200 labeled scans from four institutions and 519 unlabeled scans from a single institution. All subjects included in the study had diagnosed with brain metastases.

1.5 T and 3 T, 2D and 3D T1-weighted pre- and post-contrast, and fluid-attenuated inversion recovery (FLAIR).

Three semi-supervision methods (mean teacher, cross-pseudo supervision, and interpolation consistency training) were adapted with the U-Net architecture. The three semi-supervised methods were compared to their respective supervised baseline on the full and half-sized training.

Evaluation was performed on a multinational test set from four different institutions using 5-fold cross-validation. Method performance was evaluated by the following: the number of false-positive predictions, the number of true positive predictions, the 95th Hausdorff distance, and the Dice similarity coefficient (DSC). Significance was tested using a paired samples t test for a single fold, and across all folds within a given cohort.

Semi-supervision outperformed the supervised baseline for all sites with the best-performing semi-supervised method achieved an on average DSC improvement of 6.3% ± 1.6%, 8.2% ± 3.8%, 8.6% ± 2.6%, and 15.4% ± 1.4%, when trained on half the dataset and 3.6% ± 0.7%, 2.0% ± 1.5%, 1.8% ± 5.7%, and 4.7% ± 1.7%, compared to the supervised baseline on four test cohorts. In addition, in three of four datasets, the semi-supervised training produced equal or better results than the supervised models trained on twice the labeled data.

Semi-supervised learning allows for improved segmentation performance over the supervised baseline, and the improvement was particularly notable for independent external test sets when trained on small amounts of labeled data.

Artificial intelligence requires extensive datasets with large amounts of annotated data from medical experts which can be difficult to acquire due to the large workload. To compensate for this, it is possible to utilize large amounts of un-annotated clinical data in addition to annotated data. However, this method has not been widely tested for the most common intracranial brain tumor, brain metastases. This study shows that this approach allows for data efficient deep learning models across multiple institutions with different clinical protocols and scanners.

3 TECHNICAL EFFICACY: Stage 2.