Jatropha curcas seed oil for possible human consumption: A toxicological assessment of its phorbol esters

Jatropha curcas seeds are known for their high oil content, and the oil extracted from these seeds has been traditionally utilized in biodiesel production. The presence of toxic compounds, specifically phorbol esters (PEs), in Jatropha curcas seed oil (JCSO) has blocked its use for human consumption. This article presents a thorough literature review that summarizes the latest research on the toxicological effects, including acute toxicity, genotoxicity, carcinogenicity, and chronic toxicity associated with Jatropha curcas phorbol esters (JCPEs). It also provides an overview of current detoxification strategies. A quantitative risk assessment was performed using the Benchmark Dose (BMD) approach, revealing an Acute Reference Dose (ARfD) of 139.64 μg kg^-1 body weight for JCPEs (expressed as 12-O-tetradecanoyl-phorbol-13-acetate equivalent). Moreover, a Health-Based Guidance Value (HBGV) for JCPEs in a sub-chronic exposure context was established at 0.0105 mg kg^-1 body weight per day. These results have guided the formulation of detoxification goals for JCSO, targeting a detoxification rate of 99.5 %, along with recommendations for future research to investigate the feasibility of using JCSO in food products.