Volatile Organic Metabolites as Potential Biomarkers for Genitourinary Cancers: Review of the Applications and...

Cancer is one of the leading causes of death globally, and is ranked second in the United States. Early detection is crucial for more effective treatment and a higher chance of survival rates, reducing burdens on individuals and societies. Genitourinary cancers, in particular, face significant challenges in early detection. Finding new and cost-effective diagnostic methods is of clinical need. Metabolomic-based approaches, notably volatile organic compound (VOC) analysis, have shown promise in detecting cancer. VOCs are small organic metabolites involved in biological processes and disease development. They can be detected in urine, breath, and blood samples, making them potential candidates for sensitive and non-invasive alternatives for early cancer detection. However, developing robust VOC detection methods remains a hurdle. This review outlines the current landscape of major genitourinary cancers (kidney, prostate, bladder, and testicular), including epidemiology, risk factors, and current diagnostic tools. Furthermore, it explores the applications of using VOCs as cancer biomarkers, various analytical techniques, and comparisons of extraction and detection methods across different biospecimens. The potential use of VOCs in detection, monitoring disease progression, and treatment responses in the field of genitourinary oncology is examined.