Non-rechargeable batteries: a review of primary battery technology and future trends

Primary batteries, or non-rechargeable batteries, are crucial for powering a diverse range of low-drain applications, from household items to specialized devices in medical and aerospace industries. Despite the growth of rechargeable battery technologies, primary batteries offer distinct advantages, including cost-effectiveness, reliability, and long shelf life. This review examines the current state of primary battery technology, exploring the major types, including alkaline, zinc-carbon, lithium, and silver oxide batteries, and discussing their significance in both everyday and specialized applications. Key challenges, such as the environmental impact of battery disposal, limitations in energy density, and performance optimization, are highlighted as areas of ongoing research. Advances in nanotechnology, materials science, and novel chemistries, such as biodegradable materials and high-performance lithium-based systems, promise to improve energy density and sustainability in the future. The review also outlines future trends, including increased miniaturization for medical devices, the development of robust batteries for extreme environments, and new battery chemistries that can replace or enhance current primary battery technologies. Addressing these challenges and gaps is essential for ensuring that primary batteries remain a viable and sustainable energy storage solution in the future.