Relocating NSAIDs into the endoplasmic reticulum induces ER stress-mediated apoptosis in cancer cells

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a vital subcellular organelle that orchestrates numerous essential biological processes, including protein synthesis and processing. Disruption of ER function can lead to ER stress, a condition closely associated with the progression and development of cancer. Consequently, inducing ER stress in cancer cells has emerged as an unconventional yet promising therapeutic approach. However, selectively targeting the ER within cancer cells remains a significant challenge. To address this, we have designed and synthesized a novel small-molecule library composed of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), fluorescent probes, and ER-targeting moieties. Through screening the library in cancer cells, we identified a promising compound: an ibuprofen derivative conjugated with a dansyl group as a dual fluorescence tag and ER-targeting moiety. This ibuprofen derivative successfully localized into the ER of HCT-116 colon cancer cells within 3 h, induced ER stress by upregulating key stress markers such as CHOP, GRP94, IRE-1α, PERK, and Cas-12, while simultaneously inhibiting Cox-2. The resulting ER stress triggered autophagy by upregulating Beclin and LC3-II/LC3-I as autophagy markers, followed by apoptosis, culminating in significant cancer cell death, particularly when combined with bafilomycin A, 10-hydroxycamptothecin and obatoclax. This NSAID-based ER stress inducer provides a powerful tool for exploring the chemical biology of NSAIDs in the ER and holds great potential for advancing ER-targeted cancer therapies in combination with other anti-cancer drugs.