Organizer formation, organizer maintenance and epithelial cell plasticity in Hydra: Role of the...

The experimental and conceptual knowledge in 1909 led to the discovery of the Hydra head organizer through transplantation experiments between pigmented and non-pigmented animals; a discovery followed by numerous transplantations demonstrating cross-regulation between activating and inhibiting components distributed along the body axis. This experimental work inspired mathematicians, engineers, physicists and computer scientists to develop theoretical models predicting the principles of developmental mechanisms. Today, we know that the Wnt/β-catenin/Sp5/Zic4 gene regulatory network (GRN) links organizer activity, morphogenesis and cellular identity in Hydra, with variable conformations depending on the region or epithelial layer, and varied phenotypes depending on which GRN element is misregulated. In intact animals, Wnt/β-catenin signaling acts as the head activator at the tip of the hypostome, restricted by Sp5 in the other regions of the animal. Moreover, in the tentacle ring, Sp5 and Zic4 act epistatically to support tentacle differentiation and prevent basal disc differentiation. Along the body column, Sp5 is self-repressed in the epidermis and acts as a head inhibitor along the gastrodermis. Other players modulate these activities, such as TSP and Margin/RAX apically, Notch signaling in the tentacle zone, Dkk1/2/4 and HAS-7 in the body column. In the developmental context of regeneration, cells below the amputation zone switch from repressed to locally de novo activated head organizer status, a transition driven by immediate symmetrical and asymmetrical metabolic changes that lead to gene expression regulations involving components and modulators of Wnt/β-catenin signaling, early-pulse and early-late transient both often symmetrical, together with sustained ones, specific to head regeneration.