Structure, dynamics and phase transitions in electric field assembled colloidal crystals and glasses

Field-induced assembly of colloidal particles into structures of desired configurations is extremely relevant from the viewpoint of producing field-assembled micro-swimmers and reconfigurable smart materials. However, the behaviour of colloidal particles under the influence of alternating current (AC) electric fields remains a topic of ongoing investigation due to the complex and nuanced effects of various control parameters. Here, we examine the role of several factors including particle size, zeta potential, voltage and frequency of the applied field in the formation of different structural configurations in an intermediate frequency range (5-50 kHz) and very low conductivity solutions. We observe a wide range of configurations ranging from crystals to glasses that are normally observed at frequency ranges below 1 kHz. Additionally, we investigate the dynamics: the nature of diffusion and active motion in these out-of-equilibrium systems and show how that is directly interlinked with the formation of close-packed or open (non close-packed) structures. Lastly, we investigate the frequency-driven disorder-order-disorder phase transition in colloidal crystals, which is a starting point for building reconfigurable systems. Our findings contribute to a deeper understanding of interlinked roles of various factors in electric field-induced assembly of colloidal particles in the intermediate frequency-low conductivity regime, which is significant for potential applications in micro-robotics and next generation materials.