Morphogens and Cell-Derived Structures (Exosomes and Cytonemes) as Components of the Communication Between Cells

Morphogens, which are non-classical transcription factors, according to several studies, display a crucial role in tissue patterning, organ architecture establishment, and human disease pathogenesis. Recent advances have expanded the morphogen participation to a wide range of human diseases. There are many genetic syndromes caused by mutations of components of morphogen signaling pathways. The aberrant morphogen pathways also promote cancer cell maintenance, renewal, proliferation, and migration. On the other hand, exosomes and their application in the biomedical field are of evolving significance. The evidence that membrane structures participate in the creation of morphogenic gradience and biodistribution of morphogen components renders them attractive as new therapeutic tools. This intercellular morphogen transport is performed by cell-derived structures, mainly exosomes and cytonemes, and extracellular substances like heparan sulphate proteoglycans and lipoproteins. The interaction between morphogens and Extracellular Vesicles has been observed at first in the most studied insect, Drosophila, and afterwards analogous findings have been proved in vertebrates. This review presents the protagonists and mechanisms of lipid-modified morphogens (Hedgehog and Wnt/β-catenin) biodistribution.