The role of microbiomes in shaping insecticide resistance: current insights and emerging paradigms

Insecticide resistance is a global challenge in agriculture and public health, with the microbiome increasingly recognized as a key contributor. This review synthesizes current research on the microbiome's roles in insecticide resistance, emphasizing mechanisms like microbe-mediated insecticide detoxification, bioactivation, and modulation of host gene expression and physiology. We also explore how different environmental factors impact microbe-host interactions and the roles of epigenetics and post-transcriptional regulation in linking microbial effects to resistance. Integrating evidence from various insect species, this review also proposes strategies for resistance management, including genetically engineered microbes to detoxify insecticides and microbial diagnostic tools for monitoring resistance markers.