Animal Models for Studying Developmental Origins of Cardiovascular-Kidney-Metabolic Syndrome

Cardiovascular-kidney-metabolic syndrome (CKMS) has become a significant global health challenge. Since CKMS often originates early in life, as outlined by the developmental origins of health and disease (DOHaD) concept, prevention is a more effective strategy than treatment. Various animal models, classified by environmental exposures or mechanisms, are used to explore the developmental origins of CKMS. However, no single model can fully replicate all aspects of CKMS or its clinical stages, limiting the advancement of preventive and therapeutic strategies. This review aims to assist researchers by comparing the strengths and limitations of common animal models used in CKMS programming studies and highlighting key considerations for selecting suitable models.