The Role of Plant Virus-like Particles in Advanced Drug Delivery and Vaccine Development: Structural Attributes and...

Plant virus-like particles (pVLPs) present distinct research advantages, including cost-effective production and scalability through plant-based systems, making them a promising yet underutilized alternative to traditional VLPs. Human exposure to plant viruses through diet for millions of years supports their biocompatibility and safety, making them suitable for biomedical applications. This review offers a practical guide to selecting pVLPs based on critical design factors. It begins by examining how pVLP size and shape influence cellular interactions, such as uptake, biodistribution, and clearance, key for effective drug delivery and vaccine development. We also explore how surface charge affects VLP-cell interactions, impacting binding and internalization, and discuss the benefits of surface modifications to enhance targeting and stability. Additional considerations include host range and biosafety, ensuring safe, effective pVLP applications in clinical and environmental contexts. The scalability of pVLP production across different expression systems is also reviewed, noting challenges and opportunities in large-scale manufacturing. Concluding with future perspectives, the review highlights the innovation potential of pVLPs in vaccine development, targeted therapies, and diagnostics, positioning them as valuable tools in biotechnology and medicine. This guide provides a foundation for selecting optimal pVLPs across diverse applications.