Recent advances in nano-molybdenum oxide for photothermal cancer therapy

Cancer remains a significant global health challenge, driving the search for innovative treatments. Photothermal therapy (PTT) has emerged as a promising approach, using photothermal agents to convert near-infrared (NIR) light into heat for tumor ablation. Among these agents, nano-molybdenum oxide, particularly non-stoichiometric MoO_3-x (0 < x < 1), stands out due to its unique defect structure, strong NIR absorption, high photothermal conversion efficiency (PCE), and pH-responsive degradation. This review summarized recent advancements in nano-molybdenum oxide for PTT, covering its classification, synthesis, surface modification, and tumor-targeting mechanisms. Subsequently, we explored its applications in PTT and combination therapies, evaluated biocompatibility and toxicity, and discussed current achievements, challenges, and future perspectives in cancer treatment.