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Extruded filament electrodes for lactate biosensing in continuous-injection paper-based microfluidic devices.

Zachary A Berkheimer1, Anum Tahir1, Gregory P Nordin2

  • 1Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Brigham Young University, 84602, Provo, UT, USA.

Biosensors & Bioelectronics
|March 24, 2025
PubMed
Summary

This study presents a novel method for fabricating versatile paper-based analytical devices (μPADs) for rapid lactate quantification using 3D-printed electrodes and Prussian Blue. The developed system requires minimal sample volume and demonstrates applicability in real sweat analysis.

Keywords:
3D printingElectrochemical sensorsLactateMicrofluidicsPaper-based analytical devicesSweat

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Area of Science:

  • Electrochemistry
  • Materials Science
  • Analytical Chemistry

Background:

  • Paper-based analytical devices (μPADs) offer low-cost, portable sensing solutions.
  • Efficient fabrication of integrated electrode systems for μPADs remains a challenge.
  • Lactate detection is crucial for various biomedical and sports monitoring applications.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To develop a straightforward method for fabricating 3D-printed electrodes integrated into μPADs for lactate quantification.
  • To optimize the μPAD system for rapid, sensitive, and low-volume sample analysis.
  • To demonstrate the analytical applicability of the fabricated μPADs for lactate determination in real sweat samples.

Main Methods:

  • Fabrication of poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) molds using a 3D printing pen and carbon black filament.
  • Modification of working electrodes with Prussian Blue (PB), lactate oxidase (LOx)/chitosan, and Nafion.
  • Integration of a 3-electrode thermoplastic chip with μPADs, utilizing radial flow for sample analysis.
  • Characterization of μPADs using food dye, ferricyanide, and optimization of paper substrate pore size and injection volume.

Main Results:

  • The integrated μPAD system demonstrated rapid responses with sharp, intense transient signals.
  • Optimized μPADs exhibited a linear range of 0.5 to 4 mmol L⁻¹ for lactate determination.
  • The system successfully quantified lactate in real sweat samples using only 2 μL of sample.

Conclusions:

  • A facile approach for fabricating integrated 3D-printed electrodes on μPADs was successfully developed.
  • The developed μPADs offer a promising platform for rapid, low-volume lactate quantification.
  • This technology opens avenues for new sensing applications requiring minimal sample volumes.