Oxidative stress and central metabolism pathways impact epigenetic modulation in inflammation and immune response

Oxidative stress, metabolism, and epigenetics are deeply interconnected processes that collectively influence cellular function, health status, and contribute to disease progression. This review highlights the critical role of metabolic intermediates in epigenetic regulation, focusing on lactate, glutathione (GSH), and S-adenosylmethionine (SAM). Beyond its traditional role in energy metabolism, lactate modulates epigenetic mechanisms, influencing gene expression and cellular adaptation. Meanwhile, GSH and SAM serve as key regulators of DNA methylation and histone post-translational modifications, maintaining epigenetic homeostasis. These processes are tightly controlled by redox balance and oxidative stress, underscoring the intricate interplay between metabolism and epigenetic regulation. GSH depletion disrupts methylation homeostasis, while oxidative post-translational modifications (oxPTMs) on histones-including S-glutathionylation, carbonylation, and nitrosylation-alter chromatin architecture and transcriptional regulation. Additionally, we focus on histone lactylation, particularly its role in regulating innate and adaptive immune responses. We also explore how GSH and oxidative stress influence lactate levels, potentially inducing histone lactylation or S-glutathionylation through S,D-lactoylglutathione (LGSH), thereby impacting epigenetic regulation. By integrating insights into metabolic-epigenetic crosstalk, this review underscores the role of oxidative stress and central metabolic pathways in regulating epigenetic mechanisms, a concept known as "redox epigenetics." Understanding these intricate interactions offers new perspectives for therapeutic strategies aimed at restoring redox homeostasis and metabolic integrity to counteract disturbances in the epigenetic landscape.