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The Retina

The Retina

The retina is a layer of nervous tissue at the back of the eye that transduces light into neural signals. This process, called phototransduction, is carried out by rod and cone photoreceptor cells in the back of the retina.

Vision

Vision

Vision is the result of light being detected and transduced into neural signals by the retina of the eye. This information is then further analyzed and interpreted by the brain. First, light enters the front of the eye and is focused by the cornea and lens onto the retina—a thin sheet of neural tissue lining the back of the eye. Because of refraction through the convex lens of the eye, images are projected onto the retina upside-down and reversed.

Anatomy of the Eyeball

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The eye is a spherical, hollow structure composed of three tissue layers. The outer layer — the fibrous tunic, comprises the sclera — a white structure — and the cornea, which is transparent. The sclera encompasses some of the ocular surface, most of which is not visible. However, the 'white of the eye' is distinctively visible in humans compared to other species. The cornea, a clear covering at the front of the eye, enables light penetration. The eye's middle layer, the vascular tunic,...

Photoreceptors and Visual Pathways

Photoreceptors and Visual Pathways

At the molecular level, visual signals trigger transformations in photopigment molecules, resulting in changes in the photoreceptor cell's membrane potential. The photon's energy level is denoted by its wavelength, with each specific wavelength of visible light associated with a distinct color. The spectral range of visible light, classified as electromagnetic radiation, spans from 380 to 720 nm. Electromagnetic radiation wavelengths exceeding 720 nm fall under the infrared category, whereas...

Visual System

Visual System

Light enters the eye through the cornea, a transparent, dome-shaped surface covering the surface of the eyeball that helps to direct and focus incoming light. This light is then channeled toward the pupil, an adjustable opening whose size is controlled by the iris. The iris, a pigmented muscle, regulates the amount of light entering the eye by contracting or dilating the pupil, thereby ensuring optimal light levels for clear vision.
Once through the pupil, the light passes through the lens, a...

Color Vision

Color Vision

Color perception begins in the retina, the light-sensitive layer at the back of the eye. Two main theories explain how colors are seen: the trichromatic theory and the opponent-process theory. The trichromatic theory, proposed by Thomas Young in 1802 and extended by Hermann von Helmholtz in 1852, suggests that color vision is based on three types of cone receptors in the retina. These cones are sensitive to different but overlapping ranges of wavelengths corresponding to red, blue, and green.

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 25, 2026

Laser-scanning Photostimulation of Optogenetically Targeted Forebrain Circuits

Laser-scanning Photostimulation of Optogenetically Targeted Forebrain Circuits

Published on: December 27, 2013

Interaction between native and prosthetic visual responses in optogenetic visual restoration.

Eleonora Carpentiero¹, Steven Hughes^2,3, Jessica Rodgers⁴

¹Department of Neurophysiology, Institute of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Philipps-University Marburg, Marburg, Germany.

|April 15, 2025

Summary

Optogenetic gene therapy for blindness can be enhanced by treating early. Simultaneous native and optogenetic vision show unique interactions, impacting clinical trial strategies for vision restoration.

Keywords:

Gene therapy Ion channels Neuroscience Ophthalmology Retinopathy

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Published on: February 15, 2022

Area of Science:

Neuroscience
Ophthalmology
Genetics

Background:

Degenerative retinal disorders cause irreversible photoreceptor death and blindness.
Optogenetic gene therapy introduces light-sensitive opsins to restore vision in surviving neurons.
Early intervention with residual vision may offer advantages over treating total blindness.

Purpose of the Study:

To investigate the interaction between native and optogenetic vision.
To analyze the impact of optogenetic tools on residual visual function.
To identify potential biomarkers for tracking treatment efficacy.

Main Methods:

Utilized transgenic mice expressing the optogenetic tool ReaChR in ON-bipolar cells.
Employed electroretinography (ERG) and visually evoked potentials (VEP) to assess visual responses.
Examined retinal and cortical responses to light stimuli.

Main Results:

Optogenetic responses exhibited a distinct ERG signature and were enhanced in retinas with preserved photoreceptors.
Native visual responses were diminished in the presence of the optogenetic tool ReaChR.
VEP recordings revealed asynchronous cortical responses between native and optogenetic vision.

Conclusions:

Simultaneous native and optogenetic vision present complex interactions that influence therapeutic strategies.
The identified ERG signatures may serve as indicators for monitoring optogenetic therapy effectiveness.
Findings inform future clinical trials and preclinical research for optimizing vision restoration therapies.