Impact of smoking on ocular health: A systematic review and meta-meta-analysis

PurposeTo provide a comprehensive synthesis of the available evidence on the effects of smoking on ocular health.MethodsDatabases (PubMed, SCOPUS, Web of Science) were searched through December 2024 for systematic reviews and meta-analyses on smoking and ocular disease risk. Meta-analysis quality was assessed using the 16-item A MeaSurement Tool to Assess systematic Reviews (AMSTAR) 2.ResultsSixteen studies were included, with 12 qualifying for meta-meta-analysis. Current smokers are 7 to 12 times more likely to develop AMD than non-smokers (Odds Ratio [OR]: 11.93 [95% CI 4.40 to 32.33]; Risk Ratio [RR]: 7.45 [95% CI 4.09 to 13.57]). Past smokers have a seven-fold increased risk (OR: 7.09 [95% CI 4.79 to10.51]). For POAG, current smokers have three times the risk (OR: 3.07 [95% CI 2.07 to 4.54]), and past smokers have three times the risk (OR: 2.64 [95% CI 2.33 to 3.00]). Current smokers are four times more likely to develop cataracts (OR: 4.15 [95% CI 3.35 to 5.15]), while "ever" smokers face a six-fold risk (OR: 5.96 [95% CI 3.21 to 11.04]).ConclusionSmoking is a modifiable risk factor for numerous ocular diseases. Public health efforts and clinical guidelines should emphasize smoking cessation to reduce smoking-related ocular disease incidence and promote ocular health.