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Diseases of the Liver and Gallbladder

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Liver and gallbladder diseases are a significant health concern, with prominent conditions including cirrhosis, hepatitis, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), and gallstones. Jaundice is a common manifestation of liver and biliary disease.
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Retroviruses have a single-stranded RNA genome that undergoes a special form of replication. Once the retrovirus has entered the host cell, an enzyme called reverse transcriptase synthesizes double-stranded DNA from the retroviral RNA genome. This DNA copy of the genome is then integrated into the host’s genome inside the nucleus via an enzyme called integrase. Consequently, the retroviral genome is transcribed into RNA whenever the host’s genome is transcribed, allowing the...
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The immune system's response to viral infections is a complex and coordinated process involving natural killer (NK) cells, T cell-mediated responses, and antibody-mediated responses.
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Retroviruses and retrotransposons both insert copies of their genetic elements into the genome of the host cell. Thus, the viral genes are passed on when the host genome is replicated or translated. A typical retroviral DNA sequence contains 3-4 genes that encode the different proteins required for its structural assembly and function as a molecular parasite. This DNA is transcribed into a single mRNA, which is very similar in structure to conventional mRNAs, i.e., it is capped at the 5’...
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A mutation is a change in the sequence of bases of DNA or RNA in a genome. Some mutations occur during replication of the genome due to errors made by the polymerase enzymes that replicate DNA or RNA. Unlike DNA polymerase, RNA polymerase is prone to errors because it is not capable of “proofreading” its work. Viruses with RNA-based genomes, like HIV, therefore accrue mutations faster than viruses with DNA-based genomes. Because mutation and recombination provide the raw material...
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Viral Structure

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Viruses are extraordinarily diverse in shape and size, but they all have several structural features in common. All viruses have a core that contains a DNA- or RNA-based genome. The core is surrounded by a protective coat of proteins called the capsid. The capsid is composed of subunits called capsomeres. The capsid and genome-containing core are together known as the nucleocapsid.
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Viral Hepatitis.

Barbara Kate Snowden Neuhoff1

  • 1Ochsner Health, New Orleans, Louisiana.

Clinical Obstetrics and Gynecology
|April 18, 2025
PubMed
Summary

Viral hepatitis, including Hepatitis A, B, and C, presents diverse transmission routes and health outcomes. This review covers their pathogenesis, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention strategies.

Area of Science:

  • Hepatology
  • Virology
  • Public Health

Background:

  • Viral hepatitis is a major global health concern.
  • Five distinct viral types (Hepatitis A, B, C, D, E) exhibit unique epidemiological and clinical characteristics.
  • These infections can lead to chronic liver disease, cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To provide a comprehensive overview of viral hepatitis.
  • To detail the pathogenesis, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of viral hepatitis types.
  • To highlight special management considerations for pregnant patients and those with HIV.

Main Methods:

  • Review of existing literature on viral hepatitis.
  • Analysis of transmission routes, clinical manifestations, and long-term sequelae.
Keywords:
hepatitis Ahepatitis Bhepatitis Cvaccineviral hepatitis

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  • Examination of current diagnostic and therapeutic strategies.

    • Main Results:

    • Hepatitis A (HAV) is fecal-orally transmitted and typically self-limiting.
    • Hepatitis B (HBV) is sexually and perinatally transmitted, with potential for chronic disease.
    • Hepatitis C (HCV) is bloodborne, curable with antivirals, but lacks a vaccine.

    Conclusions:

    • Vaccination is effective for HAV and HBV prevention.
    • Antiviral therapy offers a cure for HCV.
    • Effective management requires understanding distinct viral characteristics and patient-specific factors.