Deep linear matrix approximate reconstruction with integrated BOLD signal denoising reveals reproducible hierarchical...

The hierarchical modular functional structure in the human brain has not been adequately depicted by conventional functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) acquisition techniques and traditional functional connectivity reconstruction methods. Fortunately, rapid advancements in fMRI scanning techniques and deep learning methods open a novel frontier to map the spatial hierarchy within Brain Connectivity Networks (BCNs). The novel multiband multi-echo (MBME) fMRI technique has increased spatiotemporal resolution and peak functional sensitivity, while the advanced deep linear model (multilayer-stacked) named DEep Linear Matrix Approximate Reconstruction (DELMAR) enables the identification of hierarchical features without extensive hyperparameter tuning. We incorporate a multi-echo blood oxygenation level-dependent (BOLD) signal and DELMAR for denoising in its first layer, thereby eliminating the need for a separate multi-echo independent component analysis (ME-ICA) denoising step. Our results demonstrate that the DELMAR/Denoising/Mapping strategy produces more accurate and reproducible hierarchical BCNs than traditional ME-ICA denoising followed by DELMAR. Additionally, we showcase that MBME fMRI outperforms multiband (MB) fMRI in terms of hierarchical BCN mapping accuracy and precision. These reproducible spatial hierarchies in BCNs have significant potential for developing improved fMRI diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers of functional connectivity across a wide range of neurological and psychiatric disorders.