Research progress on the regulatory role of lactate and lactylation in tumor microenvironment

The tumor microenvironment (TME) arises from the dynamic interactions between tumor cells and the surrounding medium, including a variety of cell types and extracellular components, which have an important impact on the genesis and development of tumors. A key player in TME is lactate, a metabolic byproduct of glycolysis, which serves as a significant energy source. Lactate has direct implications on the survival and differentiation of immune cells, the metabolic reprogramming and progression of tumor cells. Moreover, lactylation, a unique post-translational modification, exerts a regulatory effect on TME by affecting gene transcription via adding lactate groups to both histone and non-histone proteins. This review systematically and comprehensively synthesizes emerging evidence on how the lactate-lactylation axis drives immune evasion, therapy resistance, and TME remodeling, highlighting the therapeutic targets related to lactate and lactylation that dismantle this metabolic-epigenetic crosstalk.