Related Experiment Video
Updated: May 11, 2026
A Neuroscientific Approach to the Examination of Concussions in Student-Athletes
Published on: December 8, 2014
An 18-Year Study of Changes in Neurocognitive Function and Associations with Repetitive Head Trauma among Former
Samuel R Walton1,2, Zachary Yukio Kerr2, Jacob R Powell2
1Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Virginia Commonwealth University School of Medicine, Richmond, VA 23298, USA.
Objectives:
To assess changes in neurocognitive test scores among former collegiate American football players over 18 years and examine associations with head trauma history.
Methods:
Former collegiate American football players (n = 31; aged = 38.4 ± 1.3 years) self-reported their concussion history and repetitive head impact exposure (Head Impact Exposure Estimate). Neurocognitive testing was conducted at two time-points (during college [T1] and 18-year follow-up [T2]) via Hopkins Verbal Learning Test-Revised Immediate and Delayed Recall; Verbal fluency; Symbol Digit Modalities Test; and Trail-Making Test-B. Raw score changes were calculated, with accompanying Cohen's d effect sizes and coefficients of variation. Repeated-measures analyses of covariance models were fit to examine changes in test performance. Multivariable linear regression models tested associations of sport-related concussion history and repetitive head impact exposure with change scores.
Results:
No significant changes in cognitive test performance were observed (ps ≥ .06). Individual-level changes exhibited high variability (coefficients of variation ≥ 244%), and group-level effects were small to medium (d ≤ 0.41). Neither sport-related concussion history nor repetitive head impacts were related to change scores (ps > .05).
Conclusions:
Group-level test scores did not change over 18 years among former collegiate football players now in midlife, though individual-level variability was high. Sport-related concussion and head impact exposure estimates were not related to change. Longitudinal studies are essential to understand cognitive trajectories of former football players and factors influencing those trajectories.
