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Related Concept Videos

Polyprotic Acids03:38

Polyprotic Acids

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Acids are classified by the number of protons per molecule that they can give up in a reaction. Acids such as HCl, HNO3, and HCN that contain one ionizable hydrogen atom in each molecule are called monoprotic acids. Their reactions with water are:
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Radical Autoxidation01:20

Radical Autoxidation

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The oxidation of an organic compound in the presence of air or oxygen is called autoxidation. For example, cumene reacts with oxygen to form hydroperoxide. Autoxidation involves initiation, propagation, and termination steps. Many organic compounds are susceptible to autoxidation—especially ethers in the presence of oxygen, which form hydroperoxides. Even though this reaction is slow, old ether bottles contain small amounts of peroxide, which leads to laboratory explosions during ether...
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α-Hydroxy Ketones via Reductive Coupling of Esters: Acyloin Condensation Overview01:19

α-Hydroxy Ketones via Reductive Coupling of Esters: Acyloin Condensation Overview

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The pinacol and McMurry reactions involve the reductive coupling of ketones or aldehydes. Similarly, the bimolecular reductive coupling of two ester molecules in the presence of sodium metal in an aprotic solvent yields an α-hydroxy ketone product. The α-hydroxy ketone is also called acyloin, so the reaction is referred to as ‘acyloin condensation.’
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Preparation of Epoxides03:00

Preparation of Epoxides

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Overview
Epoxides result from alkene oxidation, which can be achieved by a) air, b) peroxy acids, c) hypochlorous acids, and d) halohydrin cyclization.
Epoxidation with Peroxy Acids
Epoxidation of alkenes via oxidation with peroxy acids involves the conversion of a carbon–carbon double bond to an epoxide using the oxidizing agent meta-chloroperoxybenzoic acid, commonly known as MCPBA. Since the O–O bond of peroxy acids is very weak, the addition of electrophilic oxygen of...
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Carboxylic Acids to Primary Alcohols: Hydride Reduction01:17

Carboxylic Acids to Primary Alcohols: Hydride Reduction

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Carboxylic acids, upon reaction with strong reducing agents such as lithium aluminum hydride followed by hydrolysis, undergo reduction to form primary alcohols.
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Titration of a Polyprotic Acid02:08

Titration of a Polyprotic Acid

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A polyprotic acid contains more than one ionizable hydrogen and undergoes a stepwise ionization process.  If the acid dissociation constants of the ionizable protons differ sufficiently from each other, then the titration curve for such polyprotic acid generates a distinct equivalence point for each of its ionizable hydrogens. Therefore, titration of a diprotic acid results in the formation of two equivalence points, whereas the titration of a triprotic acid results in the formation of...
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    This primer explains alpha hydroxy acids (AHAs), beta hydroxy acids (BHAs), and polyhydroxy acids (PHAs). It details their chemical structures, mechanisms of action, and dermatological applications for skin health.

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    Area of Science:

    • Dermatology
    • Cosmetic Science
    • Organic Chemistry

    Background:

    • Alpha hydroxy acids (AHAs), beta hydroxy acids (BHAs), and polyhydroxy acids (PHAs) are widely used in dermatological and cosmetic applications.
    • Understanding the distinct chemical properties and biological effects of these acid classes is crucial for effective skincare formulation and treatment.
    • Previous literature often discusses these acids separately, necessitating a consolidated overview.

    Purpose of the Study:

    • To provide a comprehensive primer on AHAs, BHAs, and PHAs.
    • To elucidate the chemical structures, properties, and mechanisms of action for each acid class.
    • To review the current dermatological applications and potential benefits of AHAs, BHAs, and PHAs in skincare.

    Main Methods:

    • Literature review of scientific articles, clinical studies, and formulation guidelines.
    • Comparative analysis of the chemical structures and functional groups of AHAs, BHAs, and PHAs.
    • Synthesis of information regarding the penetration, exfoliation, and other biological effects of each acid type.

    Main Results:

    • AHAs are characterized by their carboxylic acid group and are effective exfoliants, increasing cell turnover.
    • BHAs, such as salicylic acid, possess lipophilic properties allowing deeper penetration into pores.
    • PHAs are larger molecules with humectant and antioxidant properties, offering gentler exfoliation suitable for sensitive skin.

    Conclusions:

    • Each acid class (AHAs, BHAs, PHAs) offers unique benefits for skin health and treatment.
    • The selection of specific acids should be based on skin type, condition, and desired outcomes.
    • Further research can explore novel formulations and combinations of these acids for enhanced dermatological efficacy.