Current knowledge on fleas (Siphonaptera) associated with human plague transmission in Madagascar

Fleas are ectoparasites of mammals and birds. Some species are known for their medical and veterinary importance. Particularly for humans and domestic animals, fleas are often merely nuisance species, but may also be disease vectors. Some well-known infectious diseases are transmitted from animals to humans by flea bites: murine typhus, spotted-fever, bartonelloses and plague. Particularly for plague, more than 80 species were reported vectors in the world and some are internationally renowned and have been the focus of studies over decades. In Madagascar, fleas are associated with two diseases namely tungiasis and plague. Tungiasis is neglected while it affects many primarily rural districts of the country. Plague is a public health concern and endemic districts are mainly focused in the highland regions. Although more than 40 flea species occur in Madagascar, this paper is focused on some species that are confirmed or suspected vectors of plague bacteria (Yersinia pestis Lehmann and Neumann, 1896) in Madagascar namely Xenopsylla cheopis Rothschild, 1903, X. brasiliensis Baker, 1904, Synopsyllus fonquerniei Wagner and Roubaud, 1932, S. estradei Klein, 1964, Pulex irritans Linnaeus, 1758 and Paractenopsyllus pauliani Lumaret, 1962, and reviews their origins and geographic distributions, bioecology, host preferences, vector competence regarding Y. pestis, and their roles in pathogen transmission.