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Long Covid Symptom Clusters, Correlates and Predictors in a Highly Vaccinated Australian Population in 2023

Essa Tawfiq¹, Rosalie Chen¹, Damian Alexander Honeyman¹

¹Biosecurity Program, The Kirby Institute, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia.

Health Expectations : an International Journal of Public Participation in Health Care and Health Policy

|May 9, 2025

Abstract

Background:

Limited data exists regarding long Covid burden following Omicron infection in highly vaccinated populations.

Objective:

To (1) characterise long Covid prevalence and predictors and (2) identify key symptom clusters and their correlates among long Covid patients, during an Omicron-predominant period in a highly vaccinated population.

Design:

Anonymous, online, cross-sectional survey.

Setting:

January 2023, Australia.

Participants:

Residents aged ≥ 18 years with self-reported history of test-positive Covid-19. The main variables studied were socio-demographic characteristics, Covid-19 risk factors, vaccination, infection history and experiences with long Covid.

Main Outcome Measures:

Long Covid symptoms. Symptom-based clustering was used to identify long Covid symptom clusters and their functional correlates. Predictors of long Covid occurrence and severity were assessed using multivariable logistic regression.

Results:

Overall, 240/1205 participants (19.9%) reported long Covid. Long Covid risk was significantly higher for women OR 1.71 (95% CI: 1.17-2.51), people with comorbidities 2.19 (95% CI: 1.56-3.08) and those using steroid inhalers for Covid-19 treatment (2.34 [95% CI: 1.29-4.24]). Long-Covid risk increased with increasing Covid-19 infection severity (moderately severe symptoms: 2.23 [95% CI: 1.50-3.30], extremely severe symptoms: 5.80 [95% CI: 3.48-9.66], presented to ED/hospitalised: 7.22 [95% CI: 3.06-17.03]). We found no significant difference in the likelihood of long Covid between the Omicron and pre-Omicron periods, vaccination status and participant age. We identified two long Covid clusters (pauci-symptomatic, n = 170, vs. polysymptomatic, n = 66). Polysymptomatic cluster membership was associated with worse functioning (impacts on work, moderate activity, emotions and energy). Severity acute infection was strongly predictive of polysymptomatic cluster membership (5.72 [2.04-17.58]). Monoclonal antibody treatment was strongly associated with pauci-symptomatic cluster membership (0.02 [0.00-0.13]).

Discussion:

Our study shows that long Covid is an important health burden in Australia, including during the Omicron era, and identifies several risk factors. We found a subgroup of patients characterised by more symptoms and worse functional outcomes. Our findings can inform policies for protecting vulnerable populations and frameworks for long Covid risk assessment and management.

Conclusions:

One-in-five people may suffer long Covid after acute Covid-19 infection, with similar risk across age groups. Omicron variants appear not to have a lower risk compared to earlier variants in our study. A cumulative number of symptoms can help triage long Covid patients.

Patient Or Public Contribution:

We did not involve patients or the public in the design of the questionnaire. However, after a soft launch, we revised some survey questions by reviewing early responses from patients and the public.

Keywords:

Australia Covid‐19 Omicron SARS‐CoV‐2 long Covid

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