Immunotherapy in microsatellite-stable colorectal cancer: Strategies to overcome resistance

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is among the foremost causes of cancer-related mortality worldwide; however, individuals with microsatellite-stable (MSS) disease-who constitute most CRC diagnoses-derive limited benefit from existing immunotherapeutic approaches. Here, we outline emerging methods designed to address the inherent resistance of MSS CRC to immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs). Recent findings emphasize how the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME) in MSS CRC, marked by diminished immunogenicity and high levels of regulatory T cells and myeloid-derived suppressor cells, restricts effective antitumor immune activity. Combination regimens that merge ICIs with chemotherapy, anti-angiogenic agents, or targeted blockade of pathways such as TGF-β and VEGF have shown encouraging early outcomes, including enhanced antigen presentation and T-cell penetration. Novel immunomodulatory platforms-such as epigenetic modifiers, oncolytic viruses, and engineered probiotic vaccines-are under assessment to further reprogram the TME and boost therapeutic efficacy. Concurrently, progress in adoptive cell therapies (for example, chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells) and the development of cancer vaccines targeting tumor-associated and neoantigens promise to extend immune control over MSS CRC. In parallel, improving patient selection through predictive biomarkers-from circulating tumor DNA (ctDNA) to gene expression signatures and specific molecular subtypes-could refine individualized treatment strategies. Finally, interventions that alter the gut microbiome, including probiotics and fecal transplantation, serve as complementary tools to strengthen ICI responses. Taken together, these insights and combined treatment strategies lay the foundation for more successful immunotherapeutic interventions in MSS CRC, ultimately aiming to provide sustained clinical benefits to a broader spectrum of patients.