Gallium-based nano-liquid metals enabled antimicrobial mechanisms and biomedical applications

Antimicrobial resistance has emerged as a significant public healthcare concern, highlighting the urgent need for novel non-antibiotic intervention strategies. There has been a surge in the development of antibiotic-free approaches, with gallium-based liquid metals (GLMs) emerging as a particularly promising alternative. These materials, characterized by their unique liquid nature, excellent biocompatibility, and versatile functionalization, hold significant potential for a wide range of biomedical applications, including tumor therapies, antibacterial treatments, drug delivery, and healthcare monitoring. Further reduction in the physical size of liquid metals (LMs) can enhance cellular interactions and enable targeted therapeutics, thereby amplifying their overall efficacy in biomedical applications. This review highlights the diverse antibacterial mechanisms of gallium-based nano-liquid metals (GNLMs), including antibacterial drug delivery, physical destruction, generation of reactive oxygen species, the "Trojan horse" effect, photothermal effects, and synergistic strategies, and summarizes their principal applications in antibacterial biomedicine, such as antibacterial textiles, antifouling coatings, treatment of gastrointestinal diseases, anti-inflammatory therapy and tissue repair. Finally, this review also discusses the prospects of GNLM antibacterial research, offering guidance for the development of novel antibacterial agents.