Extracellular vesicle-mediated RNA warfare: A cross-kingdom battleground

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are nano-sized, lipid bilayer vesicles secreted by cells that carry proteins, RNAs, and other bioactive molecules to mediate intercellular communication. While EV research is well established in animals, studies on plant-derived EVs have only recently emerged, uncovering their critical roles in plant-microbe interactions and cross-kingdom RNA communication. Plant EVs have been shown to selectively deliver small RNAs (sRNAs) and messenger RNAs (mRNAs) to fungal pathogens, suppressing virulence and enhancing plant immunity. Progress in plant EV research has been accelerated by advancements in isolation techniques, such as high-resolution density gradient and immunoaffinity purification. However, challenges remain, including elucidating EV biogenesis, cargo selection, and the mechanisms by which EVs cross plant and fungal cell walls. This review provides an overview of recent progress in plant EV research, with a particular emphasis on EV-mediated cross-kingdom RNA communication and identifies promising directions for future investigation.