Genes and pathways determining flowering time variation in temperate-adapted sorghum

The timing of flowering is determined by a complex genetic architecture integrating signals from a diverse set of external and internal stimuli and plays a key role in determining plant fitness and adaptation. However, significant divergence in the identities and functions of many flowering time pathway components has been reported among plant species. Here, we employ a combination of genome and transcriptome wide association studies to identify genetic determinants of variation in flowering time across multiple environments in a large panel of primarily photoperiod-insensitive sorghum (Sorghum bicolor), a major crop that has, to date, been the subject of substantially less genetic investigation than its relatives. Gene families that form core components of the flowering time pathway in other species, FT-like and SOC1-like genes, appear to play similar roles in sorghum, but the genes identified are not orthologous to the primary FT-like or SOC1-like genes that play similar roles in related species. The ageing pathway appears to play a role in determining non-photoperiod determined variation in flowering time in sorghum. Two components of this pathway were identified in a transcriptome wide association study, while a third was identified via genome-wide association. Our results demonstrate that while the functions of larger gene families are conserved, functional data from even closely related species is not a reliable guide to which gene copies will play roles in determining natural variation in flowering time.