Natural melanin: from biological functions to biofunctionalized nanoparticles in advanced biomedicine

Melanin nanoparticles (MNPs) are multifunctional, bioinspired nanomaterials that have become a versatile platform for biomedical and technological applications due to their unique physicochemical properties. MNPs, derived from natural or synthetic melanin precursors, are distinguished by their ease of synthesis, low toxicity, and excellent biocompatibility, making them highly promising for applications in stimuli-responsive drug delivery, high-resolution medical imaging, real-time tumor theranostics, and targeted photothermal therapy. This review offers an in-depth overview of recent progress in the sources, synthesis methods, characterization techniques, and diverse applications of MNPs. Their inherent antioxidant properties, effectiveness in stimuli-responsive drug delivery, high photothermal conversion efficiency, and strong biocompatibility highlight their potential as promising agents for cancer treatment, targeted nanomedicine, and real-time diagnostic imaging. Furthermore, the ability of MNPs to integrate both therapeutic and diagnostic functions (theranostics) offers a promising solution to key challenges in precision medicine. This review emphasizes the growing importance of sustainable, low-toxicity nanomaterials, especially in growing global health challenges such as drug-resistant cancers and neurodegenerative diseases. By combining insights from materials science, nanotechnology, and biomedicine, this work highlights the transformative potential of MNPs while addressing key challenges and outlining future research directions.