Three-Dimensional Printing in Cardiothoracic Surgery: Workflow and Clinical Applications

Rapid advances have been made in the field of three-dimensional (3D) printing in recent times. The hardware required to create high-fidelity, anatomically accurate 3D models of intrathoracic structures, including the great vessels and bony structures, is accessible and easy to use and utilizes consumables that are cost-effective. The quality of 3D printers, especially in consumer-level machines, has improved in recent times, while the price of the hardware has decreased. We have developed a toolchain to create 3D-printed models for use in patient education and consent, operative planning, and student/resident teaching. We outline our approach using a free and open-source toolchain, highlighting the utility of our models so that others may reproduce our techniques in their own clinical and teaching practice.