Transcranial electrical stimulation (TES) in human motor Optimization: Mechanisms, safety, and emerging applications

Non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS) has emerged as a rapidly advancing field, offering promising therapeutic interventions for a range of neurological disorders while effectively bridging the gap between laboratory research and clinical applications. Among NIBS technologies, transcranial electrical stimulation (TES) stands out as a notable example, utilizing electrodes of varying sizes to deliver low-intensity electrical currents to specific regions of the cerebral cortex. This technique facilitates the modulation of neuronal excitability, regulation of brainwave activity, promotion of neural remodeling and repair, enhancement of cerebral blood flow, and improvement of brain-muscle connectivity. Despite its potential, current research on the effects of TES on motor function across diverse populations, particularly from a central nervous system perspective, remains limited. This review seeks to establish a theoretical framework for the future advancement of TES technology in sports science, elucidate the neurophysiological mechanisms underlying various TES modalities, and synthesize the most recent experimental findings from the past two decades regarding its impact on physical fitness, motor skill acquisition, and recovery in different populations.