Helicobacter Pylori-Induced Apoptosis in Gastric Diseases: Mechanisms, Implications, and Diagnostic Applications

Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) is a spiral-shaped gram-negative bacterium that causes one of the most common infections worldwide, affecting a significant portion of the human population. It plays a crucial role in regulating cellular activities, such as apoptosis, through various virulence factors, thereby contributing to the development and progression of gastrointestinal diseases including gastritis, ulcers, and gastric cancer. Here, we explored the complex relationship between H. pylori infection and apoptosis, emphasizing how H. pylori induces apoptosis via virulence factors (such as cytotoxin-associated gene A and vacuolating cytotoxin A), death receptor pathways, and host cell responses. Additionally, we critically examine current diagnostic strategies used to detect H. pylori infection and apoptosis, including non-invasive tests, invasive histopathological methods, and emerging molecular techniques. We assess their diagnostic value, limitations, and applicability in clinical settings, with the aim of identifying more effective approaches for early detection and disease monitoring.