The relationship between biomechanical factors and intervertebral disc degeneration: a review

The intervertebral disc is an avascular structure composed of the nucleus pulposus, annulus fibrosus, and the superior and inferior cartilage endplates. Located between adjacent vertebrae, it connects them structurally, contributing to spinal stability, load-bearing, shock absorption, and protection of the spinal cord. Intervertebral disc degeneration (IDD) results from various factors, including mechanical overload, trauma, repetitive strain, pregnancy, genetic predisposition, and developmental abnormalities. In the context of increased occupational demands and lifestyle changes, the spine is subjected to greater biomechanical stress, accelerating disc degeneration; increasing the risk of lumbar disc herniation. This review summarizes current knowledge on how biomechanical factors contribute to IDD, focusing on the involvement of mechanical stimuli in cellular and molecular pathways. It highlights both the detrimental and potentially protective effects of biomechanical forces on intervertebral discs and their resident cells. By exploring the dual roles of these forces, this review aims to inform future research directions and therapeutic strategies. Taken together, the evidence underscores a strong relationship between biomechanical loading and intervertebral disc degeneration at both the tissue and cellular levels.