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Lower Limb Stiffness During a Loaded Walk and Run Over Different Surfaces.

Tyler N Brown1, Eric B Francis1, Abigail C Aultz1

  • 1Department of Kinesiology, Boise State University, Boise, ID, USA.

Journal of Applied Biomechanics
|June 19, 2025
PubMed
Summary

Carrying loads while walking or running increases vertical ground reaction forces (vGRFs) and lower limb stiffness, potentially raising injury risk. Locomotion on foam surfaces also elevates these biomechanical factors, particularly for males.

Keywords:
musculoskeletalsex dimorphismtorsional joint stiffness

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Area of Science:

  • Biomechanics
  • Human Movement Science
  • Sports Medicine

Background:

  • Understanding the impact of external loads and surface properties on human locomotion is crucial for injury prevention.
  • Previous research has explored factors affecting ground reaction forces and lower limb stiffness, but comprehensive analysis across sexes, gaits, loads, and surfaces is limited.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To quantify the effects of body-borne load and surface type on vertical ground reaction forces (vGRFs) and lower limb stiffness during walking and running.
  • To compare biomechanical responses between males and females under various locomotion conditions.

Main Methods:

  • Nine males and nine females performed walking (1.3 m/s) and running (4.5 m/s) trials.
  • Trials were conducted with and without a 15 kg body-borne load on both firm and soft foam surfaces.
  • Vertical ground reaction forces (vGRFs) and lower limb joint stiffness were measured and analyzed using linear mixed models.

Main Results:

  • Loaded walking and running significantly increased vGRFs and lower limb stiffness (P < .016 and P < .033, respectively).
  • The foam surface increased peak vGRF and knee stiffness during both gaits, and leg/ankle stiffness during running (P < .025).
  • Males exhibited greater peak vGRF and hip/ankle stiffness during walking, and greater knee stiffness on foam during running compared to females.

Conclusions:

  • Loaded walking and running, along with locomotion on compliant foam surfaces, may increase the risk of lower limb injuries due to elevated vGRFs and stiffness.
  • Sex-specific differences in biomechanical responses suggest varying injury susceptibility, with males potentially at higher risk on foam surfaces.