Carcinogenic effects of paraquat-based herbicides: a comprehensive review

Herbicides are agrochemicals used for the eradication of weeds in agriculture. Farmers worldwide recognize paraquat-based herbicides for their high effectiveness against different weeds. Previous research indicates that the extensive application of herbicides may endanger environmental, animal, and human health due to their toxicity. Specifically, herbicides have been associated with carcinogenic effects. Several molecular and cellular mechanisms have been linked to the carcinogenicity of herbicides, including the induction of DNA damage and/or oxidative stress through the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Researchers have linked several molecular and cellular mechanisms to the carcinogenicity of herbicides, which would result in the proliferation, survival, and invasion of cancerous cells. Particularly, paraquat-based herbicides can disrupt the cellular redox balance, which makes them extremely toxic to animals and humans. Although the World Health Organization's (WHO) International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has not evaluated the carcinogenicity of paraquat to date, several countries have banned its use due to its association with a high mortality rate from self-poisoning incidents. Our review seeks to provide a comprehensive panorama of the carcinogenic effects of paraquat-based herbicides in animals and humans, encompassing studies on environmental persistence, molecular and cellular mechanisms of toxicity, and epidemiological research on paraquat's association with carcinogenesis.