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Related Concept Videos

Cranial Bones: Superior and Posterior View01:14

Cranial Bones: Superior and Posterior View

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The superior view of the cranium shows the frontal and paired parietal bones.
The frontal bone is the single bone that forms the forehead. At its anterior midline, between the eyebrows, there is a slight depression called the glabella. The frontal bone also forms the supraorbital margin of the orbit. Near the middle of this margin is the supraorbital foramen, the opening that provides passage for a sensory nerve to the forehead. The frontal bone is thickened just above each supraorbital margin,...
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Sutures of the Skull01:22

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The human skull is composed of several bones that come together to protect the brain and support the structures of the face. The junctions where these bones meet are called sutures.
Sutures are immobile joints between adjacent bones of the skull. The narrow gap between the bones is filled with dense, fibrous connective tissue that unites the bones. The long sutures located between the skull bones are not straight but instead follow irregular, tightly twisting paths. These twisting lines tightly...
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Cranial Bones: Lateral View01:27

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The lateral view of the cranium is dominated by temporal, sphenoid, and ethmoid bones.
The temporal bone forms the lower lateral side of the skull. The temporal bone is subdivided into several regions. The flattened upper portion is the squamous portion of the temporal bone. Below this area and projecting anteriorly is the zygomatic process of the temporal bone, which forms the posterior portion of the zygomatic arch. Posteriorly is the mastoid portion of the temporal bone. Projecting...
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Overview of the Skull01:08

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The cranium (skull) is the skeletal structure of the head that supports the face and protects the brain. It is subdivided into the facial bones and the brain case, or cranial vault. The facial bones underlie the facial structures, form the nasal cavity, enclose the eyeballs, and support the teeth of the upper and lower jaws.
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Bone Formation by Intramembranous Ossification01:29

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Intramembranous ossification is one of the two processes involved in the development of bones within an embryo. The flat bones of the face, most of the cranial bones, and the clavicles are formed via this process. During intramembranous ossification, the bones develop directly from sheets of undifferentiated mesenchymal connective tissue.
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Anatomy of the Eyeball01:20

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The eye is a spherical, hollow structure composed of three tissue layers. The outer layer — the fibrous tunic, comprises the sclera — a white structure — and the cornea, which is transparent. The sclera encompasses some of the ocular surface, most of which is not visible. However, the 'white of the eye' is distinctively visible in humans compared to other species. The cornea, a clear covering at the front of the eye, enables light penetration. The eye's middle...
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Sep 18, 2025

Author Spotlight: Three-Dimensional Cephalometric Landmark Annotation Demonstration on Human Cone Beam Computed Tomography Scans
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Occipital Condyle Development in Extant Hominids and Australopithecus afarensis.

Neysa Grider-Potter1,2, Thierra K Nalley3, Jeremiah E Scott3

  • 1Department of Biomedical Sciences, Northeast Ohio Medical University, Rootstown, Ohio, USA.

American Journal of Biological Anthropology
|June 23, 2025
PubMed
Summary

The study found that condylar curvature increases with age in all hominids, but adult human and gorilla condyles are flatter than chimpanzees and orangutans. Australopithecus afarensis shows a chimpanzee-like pattern, suggesting convergent evolution in humans and gorillas.

Keywords:
Australopithecuscranial basegreat apesontogeny

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Area of Science:

  • Paleoanthropology
  • Comparative Anatomy
  • Developmental Biology

Background:

  • Occipital condyle morphology varies across hominids, influencing positional behavior and upright posture.
  • The ontogeny and curvature of condylar joint surfaces remain less understood.
  • This research investigates condylar curvature development in extant hominids and Australopithecus afarensis.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To examine the ontogenetic changes in occipital condylar curvature.
  • To compare condylar curvature across different hominid species and developmental stages.
  • To correlate changes in condylar curvature with cranial synostosis fusion.

Main Methods:

  • Quantified condylar curvature in 147 individuals across five species: chimpanzees, gorillas, humans, orangutans, and A. afarensis.
  • Categorized specimens into juvenile, adolescent, and adult dental age groups.
  • Employed resampling methods to analyze inter- and intra-generic differences and recorded synostotic fusion timing.

Main Results:

  • Condylar curvature increases with ontogeny in all studied taxa.
  • Adult Homo and Gorilla exhibit flatter condyles compared to Pan and Pongo.
  • Australopithecus afarensis displays a Pan-like morphology and developmental trajectory.

Conclusions:

  • The observed patterns of condylar curvature do not directly correlate with postural or locomotor differences.
  • The flatter condyles in humans and gorillas appear to be a result of convergent evolution.
  • The Pan-like morphology in A. afarensis supports the idea of a retained plesiomorphic cervico-occipital region in early hominins, even after the evolution of bipedality.