Osteochondral organoid biofabrication: construction strategies, applications and perspectives

Osteochondral tissue is a functional complex with crosstalk shown to occur between cartilage and subchondral bone, playing a pivotal role in joint function and mobility. Osteochondral tissue repair has long been an enormous challenge in regenerative medicine and tissue engineering. With the development of biofabrication and biomaterials innovations, organoid technology, which can mimic the biological architecture and characteristics of organs through the construction of 3D tissue structuresin vitro, provides novel insight into osteochondral (OC) tissue regeneration. This review explores the significance of OC organoid biofabrication and the related biological structures and functions of the joint OC unit. Furthermore, we summarize novel biofabrication technologies used for OC organoids, such as 3D printing and microfluidics, and propose construction strategies for OC organoids. Finally, the application directions and challenges of OC organoids are outlined, emphasizing their potential for OC disease treatment.