Bio-hybrid whey protein-based gallic acid-loaded poly (vinyl alcohol) nanofibers by electrospinning

Electrospinning is a promising technique for fabricating nanofibers with tailored functionalities by blending diverse biomaterials. In this study, poly (vinyl alcohol) (PVA) nanofibers incorporating whey protein isolate (WPI) and gallic acid (GA, 2.5 % w/w) were developed via electrospinning. Varying the PVA:WPI ratio allowed systematic evaluation of fiber morphology, wettability, thermal properties, antioxidant capacity, and antibacterial activity. The fibers exhibited smooth, bead-free morphologies, with average diameters decreasing from 205 to 129 nm as WPI content increased. Incorporation of GA significantly improved hydrophilicity and thermal stability. Antioxidant assays demonstrated up to 87 % DPPH radical scavenging, while antibacterial tests showed effective inhibition of Escherichia coli (E. coli) and Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus). Among all formulations, PVA-WPI-20-GA displayed the most favorable characteristics in terms of thermal resilience, antioxidant efficiency, and microbial reduction, indicating its strong potential for biomedical and active packaging applications.